SOUTH AMERICAN UNBRAZILIAN ANGIOSPERMS: HABIT

The aim of this post is to provide insights into angiosperms, especially South American ones, absent in Brazil, regarding unique and new habits. To achieve this, we'll use as a reference the Angiosperms of Brazil: a habit-based classification proposal post (SEE), elaborating on the 50 types of habits proposed in that text for Brazil.

GENERA WITH REMARKABLE DIVERSITY AFTER BRAZIL

Many genera reach their peak of morphological diversity in South America. Worldwide, Euphorbia is by far the most diverse genus in terms of morphological evolution. In South America, Euphorbia doesn't exhibit such a high diversity, with this position being taken by Phyllanthus. Below, five other genera also reach peaks of morphological diversity on the continent, but many of the forms contributing to this scenario are not found in Brazil.

Valeriana L. (Caprifoliaceae) - considered here as the most morphologically varied genus in South America, it includes 'agavoid' rosettes with long inflorescence of V. plantaginea Kunth (Ecuador and Peru) or short as in V. rigida Ruiz & Pav. (Colombia to Bolivia) and in the twisted leaf species V. macrorhiza Poepp. ex DC. (Cono Sur), upright microphyllous herbs such as V. microphylla Kunth (Colombia to Peru), prostrate herbs with simple leaves like V. glechomifolia F.G. Mey (Brazil) or cut like V. philippiana Briq. (Cono Sur), succulent rosettes like V. henriciii (Graebn.) B. Eriksen (Ecuador and Peru) and V. moyanoi Speg. (Cono Sur), herbaceous lianas such as V. scandens L. (all tropical America) or woody like V. clematitis Kunth. (Mexico to Cono Sur), and type trees like V. tajuvensis Sobral (Brazil).

Baccharis L. (Asteraceae) ‣ highly diverse genus, ranging from acaulescent species from saline habitats in the Andes to vigorous trees in tropical forests, as seen in Heiden & Bonifacino (Head Topics, 2021).

Draba L. (Brassicaceae) has all diversity of size in n South America, showing tremendous variability in the growth habit, though most of the paramo taxa have woody lower stems and often form subshrubs; all typically woody lower stems are restricted to South America (Al-Shehbaz, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2018).

Brocchinia Schult. f. ex Schult. & Schult. f. (Bromeliaceae) ‣ by Givnish et al. (Molecular Evolution and Adaptive Radiation, 1998), this genus has the greatest diversity of means of capturing nutrients among all angiosperms at the generic level, and of morphological variation among Bromeliaceae, and includes unbrazilian carnivores (B. reducta Baker), myrmecophytes (B. acuminata L.B. Sm.), (possible) nitrogen fixation by symbiosis (populations of B. tatei L.B. Sm. in the north of Gran Sabana), tank epiphytes (B. hitchcockii L.B. Sm.), terrestrial (B. gilmartiniae Varad.), semi-arboreal (B. micrantha (Baker)Mez., B. paniculata Schult.f., the latter occurs in Brazil), paludiculous (B. melanacra L.B. Sm. (fire resistance), B. prismatica L.B. Sm. and B. steyermarkii L.B. Sm.) and conventional terrestrial forms; in addition, it includes some of the smallest (5 cm) and largest (8 m) bromeliads, arborescent rosettes and lianoid species.

Oxalis L. (Oxalidaceae) ‣ Oxalis includes in South America, after Brazil, a huge amount of habits, including woody shrubs, cushions, lianas and succulent prostates.

ALL 50 HABITS IN BRAZILIAN ANGIOSPERMS

South America also has 49 unbrazilian families, together containing 83 genera and 445 spp. in continent (c. 2% of South American genera), of which Conanthera, Zephyra (Tecophileaceae), Lapageria (Philesiaceae), Gomortega (Gomortegaceae), Pseudomonotes (Dipterocarpaceae), Schreiteria (Montiaceae), Halophytum (Halophytaceae), and Grahamia (Anacampserotaceae) are national endemisms.

10 of the exxofamilies have genera restricted to South America (Atherospermataceae, Gomortegaceae, Philesiaceae, Tecophylleaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Saxifragaceae, Nothofagaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Corsiaceae, and Collumeliaceae).

The largest speciose families are mainly in Montiaceae (98), Brunelliaceae (61), Actinidiaceae (49), Grossulariaceae (51), Polemoniaceae (37), Hydrangeaceae (14), Phrymaceae (13), Nothofagaceae (10), Frankeniaceae (9), Dipentodontaceae (9), Tecophileaceae (9), Myricaceae (8), Misodendraceae (8), Saxifragaceae (7), Juglandaceae (6), Papaveraceae (5) and Collumeliaceae (5).

Zosteraceae and Berberidopsidaceae on the continent are restricted to Chile; Koeberliniaceae to Bolivia; Melanthiaceae to Venezuela; Nelumbonaceae, Dipterocarpaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Fagaceae, Cytinaceae and Mitrastemonaceae in Colombia. Gomortegaceae is endemic to Chile and Halophytaceae is endemic to Argentina.

Huge South American families absents in Brazil are the worldwide speciose Fagaceae (969), Papaveraceae (775), Dipterocarpaceae (695), Saxifragaceae, Actinidiaceae (448), Montiaceae (275), Polemoniceae and Grossulariaceae (192). All exxofamilies has 3 or fewer genera in South America; exceptions are Polemoniaceae (12), Montiaceae (7) and Saxifragaceae (5); 28 has only a single genus, 12 only two genera, three only three genera.

Smallest plants in their groups in South America, absents in Brazil, includes Viola liliputana H. H. Iltis & H. E. Ballard (Violaceae, endemic to Peru, possibly the second smallest known terrestrial dicot), Lysipomia mitsyae Sylvester & D.Quandt (Campanulaceae, 1.8–4(–5.5) mm tall, Cuzco region, Peru, possibly the smallest terrestrial plant worldwide), Blossfeldia liliputiana Werderm (smallest Cactaceae, from S Bolivia to N Argentina, only about 10-12 mm in diameter at maturity), Begonia elachista Moonlight & Tebbitt (Begoniaceae, lowlands of Peru, is the world smallest species of genus) and Raddiella vanessieae Judz. (French Guiana, is smallest known bamboo, flowering at only 2 cm high).

Largest plants in thier groups in South America but absents in Brazil includes Ceroxylon quindiuense (Karst.) H.Wendl. (Arecaceae, tallest of all Monocots worldwide, Andes of Colombia and northern Peru), Hydrangea serratifolia (Hook. & Arn.) F. Phil. (Hydrangeaceae, the largest woody liana in Chile, and possibly in Argentina); Aosa grandis (Standl.) R.H.Acuña & Weigend (Loasaceae, Panama and Colombia); Heliamphora ionasi Maguire (Sarraceniaceae, endemic to two tepuis in E Venezuela, has the largest pitchers in the genus, which can be up to 50 cm in height), Spergularia manicata (Skottsb) Kool & Thulin (San Ambrosio Island, off the coast of Chile, in the only member of Caryophyllaceae that may grow to a small tree); Oxalis gigantea Barnéoud (Chile, is largest species of genus); Sobralia altissima D.E. Benn. & Christenson (Orchidaceae, Peru, is tallest of all orchids, reaching up to 13.4m tall); Begonia parvifolia Liebm. from Costa Rica to Peru is possibly the tallest member of this genus in New World; and Tessmmanniathus heterostemon Markgr. (up to 45m in Peru and Ecuador, tallest member of Melastomataceae in New World).

Only one of the nearly 400 epiphytic Ericaceae of the neotropics occurs in Brazil: Satyria panurensis (Benth. ex Meisn.) Hook. f. ex Nied. Unique epiphyte types in South America afer Brazil among their families include Burmannia kalbreyeri Oliv. (Burmanniaceae) from Costa Rica to Peru and Venezuela, non-holomycotrophic (NYBG); Voyria aphylla (Jacq.) Pers. and V. spruceana Benth. (Gentianaceae) have already been collected growing as epiphytes at about 30 m in height in Colombia (Merckx, Mycoheterotrophy: The biology of plants living on fungi, 2013). Solanum morelliforme Bitter & Münch (Solanaceae) is the only epiphyte species in sec. Petota ('potatoes'), and is only described for two areas: S Mexico to Honduras, and forests near Lake Titicaca, in Bolivia and Peru (Jansky et al., Front. Plant Sci., 2016). The two species of Cochliostema Lem. (Commelinaceae, Central America to Ecuador) are the only ones in the family with bromeloid habit as tank epiphytes (K.Kubitzki, vol IV, 1998, p. 110). Worldwide, it's worth noting the unique mention of the only epiphytic Valeriana worldwide, V. rudychazaroi, endemic to Veracruz state in Mexico (SEE).

Of 423 spp. absent in Hemiparasitic Santalales non-Olacoid in Brazil, 267 (~ 2/3) are Phoradendron, Dendrophtora or Psittacanthus. Endemic genera, despites Brazil, occur only in Chile (Desmaria and Notanthera).

Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) includes 9 spp. as true trees, all from Colombia but one (in Peru), 4 endemics, remaining up to Costa Rica, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru; P. lindeniana Planch. ex Triana & Planch up to 20m high. Ipomoea includes six true trees (up to 15m tall in a mexican endemic), all from Mexico, I. wolcottiana Rose, Gard. & Forest and I. pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti up to Peru in South America. Aristolochia arborea Linden is the most arborescent species of this genus, known from Mexico to Colombia, reaching upto 4m tall (Isnard et al., IJPS, 2021). In Cistaceae, Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea Maguire & Ashton shows a taller tropical tree from Venezuela and Guyana, an aberrant genetically isolated divergence from the rest of the family, which are mostly shrubs or herbs mostly concentrated in cold regions Northern Hemisphere.

Herbs in South America groups absents in Brazil at herbal habit includes Schoepfiaceae, whore herbs occur only in Quinchamalium Molina (C & S Andes, Angios Bergianska), and Bignoniaceae, where few herbs occur, with New World members belonging Tourretia Foug. (1) from Mexico to Bolivia and Eccremocarpus Ruiz & Pavon (5) from Colombia to Cono Sur, these herbaceous vines, and Argylia D. Don. from Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina, true herbaceous.

Unique lianas among their families in South America absents in Brazil includes in Vasconcellea horovitziana (V.M. Badillo) V.M. Badillo (Caricaceae) from Ecuador; in Oxalis L. (Oxalidaceae), where only two lianes occur, both from South America, O. lotoides Kunth and O. medicaginea Kunth, both native to Venezuela to Peru. At Brassicaceae, lianoids occur only in Heliophila from South Africa, some Australian Lepidium, and in Cremolobus from South America.

Citing only South American genera absent in Brazil with xylopodia, there are woody rhizomes in Myricaceae (Morella); lignotuber in Asteraceae (Podanthus), Monimiaceae (Peumus); and roots crown in Proteaceae (Gevuina). Pitraea Turcz., from Peru and Bolivia to Argentina and Chile, is unique in Verbenaceae in being a tuber-bearing perennial herb; caudiciforms forms in continent absent in Brazil includes the uncommon dendroid habit in Bromeliaceae, as dendroid palm-like Brocchinia micrantha (Baker) Mez. (SEE), and vellozioid B. uaipanensis (Maguire) Givnish; ephedroid habit in South America apart Brazil includes Neosparton and Diostea (S Bolivia, Chile and Argentina) species in Verbenaceae; ground rosettes in South American lineages absents in Brazil includes the bizarre forms in Valeriana rigida and Valeriana convallarioides; caulirosules are extreme emblematic in Asteraceae from Andes from Colombia and Venezuela.

In South America occur 280 cushions in (38:)86 genera among 20 orders, 18 if them in Eudicots. By country, the diversities are Venezuela (10:12/21 spp.), Colombia (13:20/38 spp.), Ecuador (18:28/53 spp.), Peru (22:35/72 spp.), Bolivia (22:34/64 spp.), Argentina (31:67/194 spp.), and Chile (30:59/158 spp.), by Almanaque Z (SEE).

INFOGRAPHIC OF SOUTH AMERICAN CUSHIONS, PHYLOGENETIC DISTRIBUTION AND HIGHLIGHT FOR THE 5 LARGEST GENERA

Among succulents in New World, few are in Aizoaceae and Asclepiadoideae. Mexico has high diversity in Crassulaceae, Agavaceae and Euphorbiaceae , with few members in South America. In addition to the Cactaceae, are the Crassulaceae with Sedum L. in South America, represented by the rosettes (of obsolete Echeveria DC.) and the erect or prostate forms (of Sedum s.s. and obsolete Villadia Rose); 26 of the 38 spp. of this group in South America are endemic to Peru, and can be seen for Cuzco plants in Pino, Galiano, Vargas & Kamm (Cactus and Succulent Journal, 2017) and for Cajamarca plants in Pino & Cieza (Haseltonia, 2009); in Solanaceae, succulent forms are found only in Sclerophyllax Miers. from Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay, like S. cynocrambe (Griseb.) Griseb.; and in Nolana L. from Peru, Chile and Galapagos, like N. galapagensis (Christoph.) Johnst. (K.Kubitzki, vol. XIV , 2016, pg. 296). Monocots succulents in New World absents in Brazil are in Asparagaceae and Amaryllidaceae (Rauhia Traub. from Peru). The work of Pino et al. (Haseltonia, 2012) discusses a group of succulent Peperomia (Pipearceae) with transparent leaves, restricted to the south of Ecuador and the Peruvian Andes, formed by species that resemble some Crassulaceae or Caryophylalles; the work reinforces Peru as a succulent hotspot in South America.

SUCCULENT PEPEROMIA FROM ANDEAN PERU

Brazil has 20 spp. of Cecropia (Urticaceae), and Colombia has 37. All mangroves from New World occur in Brazil except Hilairanthus bicolor from Pacific coast from Mexico to Colombia, and the two Pelliciera Triana & Planch. However, with 8 spp. of mangroves, the country with the greatest diversity on species, genera and families in the continent is Colombia.

Salicornioid habit in South America, besides Brazilian member, occur in Suaeda L., Allenrolfea O. Kuntze, Heterostachys Ung. Sternb. and Mangleticornia P. W. Ball, G. Kadereit & Cornejo.

Among epiphytes/lianescent, aerial parasites, strongly represented in Loranthaceae and Santalaceae; South American members absent in Brazil includes only 11 genera: Misodendron, 5 in Santalaceae (Mida, Lepidoceras, Nanodea and Myoschilus, all from S Peru to Chile) and 5 in Loranthaceae (Desmaria, Notanthera in southern region, Tristerix and Aetanthus widely in Andes, and Maracanthus in northern continent).

Aquatic formas in South America absents in Brazil includes Brasenia schreberi J.F.Gmel. known in South America in Colombia, Venezuela and French Guiana, and Jasarum steyermarkii G.S.Bunting., a plant with permanently submerged leaves and is the only true example of this life form among neotropical Araceae, in rivers in E Venezuela (Bolivar state) and W Guyana (T. Croat, Aroideana, 1988). All South American sea grasses occur in Brazil except three mono-represented in the New World by Syringodium filiforme (Cymodoceaceae), Thalassia testudinum (Hydrocharitacae) and Heterozostera chilensis (Zosteraceae). Colombia and Venezuela have 5 genera and 6 species each, the South American hotspots being marine grasses, largely due to the great diversity of such forms in the Caribbean Sea.

In carnivorous of South America, only Pinguincula L. does not occur in Brazil; this genus includes 10 spp. in South America, 4 from Venezuela to Bolivia, and six in Argentina/Chile. Venezuela is the center of diversity for Brocchinia and Heliamphora.

Two holoparasitic lineage does not occur in South America: Rafflesiaceae and Cynomoriaceae. All generic lineages of holoparasitic plants in America Latina occur in Brazil except 20: Lennoa, Pholisma (Boraginaceae), Bdallophytum (Cytinaceae), Trirudopsis (Triuridaceae), Corynaea (Balanophoraceae), Mitrastemon (Mitrastemonaceae), Arachnitis (Corsiaceae), Degranvillea, Corallorhiza (5 holomycotrophs, from North to Cental America), Hexalectris (6, U.S.A. to Mexico), these Orchidaceae; Monotropa, Hypopitys (1, widely in northern Hemisphere up to Central America), Pterospora (1, U.S.A. to Mexico), Pyrola (only P. aphylla, Canada to Mexico), Sarcodes (1, W North America), these Ericaceae; Aphyllon Mitch. (21, New World), Conopholis Wallroth. (3, North and Central America), Epifagus Nutt. (1, Canada to Mexico), Eremitilla Yatsk. & Contreras (1, Guerrero, Mexico), and Kopsiopsis (Beck) Beck (2, Canada to NW Mexico) of Orobanchaceae. 17 of these occur in Mexico, and 5 in Colombia.

AMERICA LATINA's UNBRAZILIAN ACHLOROPHYLLOUS GENERA EXCEPT 2 IN ORCHIDACEAE, 5 IN OROBANCHACEAE AND 4 IN ERICACEAE

Isophasic parasitis is very rare, a feature that, in Santalales, is only known for in several species of Arceuthobium (North American A. americanum Nutt. ex Engelm., A. douglasii Engelm., and A. pusillum Peck, and the Himalayan A. minutissimum Hook.), but only on their most common hosts trees, in Phoradendron perredactum Rzedowski & Calderón, from Mexico (Kuijt, Acta Botanica Mexicana, 2011), and in Tristerix aphyllus (Loranthaceae) from Chile.

SOUTH AMERICAN UNBRAZILIAN ANGIOSPERMS: SYNDROMES

In this post, we will discuss the mold/ecological syndromes of angiosperms in South America, exclusively focusing on forms absent in Brazil, along with a note on the most diverse morphologically genera on the continent.

CLOSEST POINTS TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF 10 GENERA ABSENTS IN BRAZIL

ANGIOSPERMS SYNDROMES IN UNBRAZILIAN SOUTH AMERICAN PLANTS

In addition to some exceptions already mentioned above for certain genera or species that have a certain singularity in their genus or family, it is worth mentioning several important cases involving South America plants absents in Brazil. 

       

1. plant mimicry is something neglected in the literature, but it is worth mentioning Macrocentrum droseroides Triana from Venezuela and Guyana, a Drosera-like species of Melastomataceae (SEE). 

 

2. vivipary in Melastomataceae is reported in 4 genera worldwide; in New World only two species does not occur in Brazil, Macrocentrum minus Gleason and M. vestitum Sandwith, from Venezuela to French Guiana.

 

3. all DT's in New World occur in Brazil except members of Barbaceniopsis, V. andina Ibisch, R.Vásquez & Nowicki endemic to Bolivia, Sporobolus atrovirens (Kunth) Kunth endemic to Mexico, Microchloa kunthii Desv. from Africa, tropical Asia and from U.S.A. to Argentina, Clinopodium giliesii (Benth.) Kuntze, endemic to Chile; and Blossfeldia liliputana Werderm., S Bolivia and N Argentina. 

4. fungi symbiotics, in the Neotropics, several unrelated plant genera have independently evolved the ability to form ECM symbioses with fungi; brazilian absents includes Pakaraimaea Maguire & Ashton (Cistaceae), Pseudomonotes tropenbosii A.C.Londoño, E.Alvarez & Forero (Dipterocarpaceae), and Quercus L. (Fagaceae).

5. among geocarpy in New World, all species occur in Brazil except members of Okenia (Nyctaginaceae) and Amphicarpus (Poaceae) from North America, and 14 spp. of Arachis in South America. 

6. all lineages of mymercophyts plants in South America reaches in Brazil except Myrmecophila, Alexia, Besleria, Myrcia, Hoffmania, Allomaieta, and Blakea. 

 

7. colored nectar occur documented in 70 spp. of angiosperms; in South America absent in Brazil includes Puya alpestris (Poepp.) Gay (Bromeliaceae), endemic to central Chile, with blue nectar; and Solanaceae C. pubescens Ruiz & Pav. from Ecuador to Bolivia, C. eximium Hunz. from Bolivia to Argentina (these three with yellow nectar), and in 9 spp. and 4 morphospecies of Jaltomata Schltdl. from Peru, one of them up to Bolivia (Dennis M. Hansen, Biol. Rev. Camb. Philos. Soc., 2007), all with red-to-orange nectars. 

 

8. all rubiaceous genera with pterophyllous calycophylls in South American Rubiaceae occur in Brazil except Cruckshanksia Hook. & Arn. (7, from Argentina and Chile) and Pteridocalyx (Guyana). 

 

9. among epiphylly, based on Dickson (The Botanic Review, 1978), as far as South America absent Brazilian taxa is concerned, Nototriche Turcz. (Malvaceae) has inflorescences at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade; Phyllonoma Willd. ex Schultes (Phyllonomaceae, Venezuela to Peru) has inflorescences on the upper surface of the leaves; Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus Planch. (Rutaceae), endemic to Colombia, on the lower surface; in additon, by G. Mathieu et al. (Botanical Journal of Linnean Society, 2008), 12 spp. of Peperomia (Piperaceae) in South America (Colombia to Bolivia) has inflorescences at the junction of the petiole and the leaf blade.

10. of the 10 largest angiosperm seeds (Wikipedia), 5 are from palms absent in South America, two are from non-palms from East Asia (in Poaceae and Lauraceae), and 3 from South America: the 3rd and 8th in Mora (Fabaceae), respectively M. oleifera (Triana ex Hemsl.) Ducke from Central America to Ecuador, 18 cm ✕ 15 cm ✕ 8 cm, and M. excelsa Benth. from Venezuela and Guianas); and the 9th, Pelleciera rhizophorae Planch. & Triana, Tetrameristaceae, a mangrove from the Pacific (Costa Rica to Ecuador) and Atlantic (Nicaragua to Colombia) coasts of tropical America. Saccoglottis ovicarpa Cuatr. from Chocó region of W Colombia may be the largest-fruited Humiriaceae, as well two spp. of Compsoneura and also two spp. of Iryanthera of the same region, in their respective genera, both Myristicaceae (Gentry, Caldasia, 1986, pg. 12). Attalea cuatrecasasiana (Dugand) A.J.Hend., Galeano & R.Bernal (Arecaceae) has fruits up to 14 cm. long by 10 cm in diameter, they are the third largest seeds in the palm family after the double coconut (Lodoicea maldivica, Seychelles) and the coconut (Cocos nucifera, Paleotropics), and the largest in New World (Palmpedia).

Zanthoxylum magnifructum Reynel (Colombia) has the largest fruits of any species in the genus in the New World (Reynel, Novon, 2020). Chionanthus megistocarpus (Oleaceae, Colombia) has largest fruits for this genus in the Neotropics (4.5–5 cm long; Fernández-Alonso, Phytotaxa, 2016). Ternstroemia washikiatii Cornejo & C.Ulloa (Pentaphyllacaceae, Ecuador) the large leaves (21–33 × 8.5–11 cm), and the large fruits (4.5–5.5 × 6.5–7.7 cm) of this genus (Cornejo & Ulloa, Harvard Papers in Botany, 2016). Monteverdia multicostata Cornejo & Biral (Celastraceae, Ecuador) has the largest fruits in the genus (to 3.5 cm long, Cornejo & Biral, Phytotaxa, 2021). Solanum sibundoyense (Bohs) Bohs (Solanaceae, Colombia) produces some of the largest fruits known in Cyphomandra clade (10cm ✕ 7cm, Bohs, Systematic Botany, 1988).

 

11. populations of Polylepis tarapacana Phil. (Rosaceae, Bolivia and Cono Sur) near Nevado Sajama, Bolivia, grow at about 5,600 m in altitude, making the highest record of trees in the world, displacing records of Abies squamata Masters (Pinaceae) in SW China (How High Altitude Polylepis Trees Taste the Guinness World Records Wrong, 2016); Myrosmodes Rchb.f. (Orchidaceae) is the only genus of its family to grow in the swamps of the high Andes and was registered at about 5,100 m a.s.l., highest habitat known to support orchids in Earth (Trujillo et al., Lankesteriana, 2016). Barbaceniopsis boliviensis (Baker) L.B. Smith is the highest known site of Velloziaceae, growing at 2,900 m in Bolivian Andes (Ibsch et al., Systematic Botany, 2001). Ceroxylon parvifrons (Engel) H.Wendl grows at the highest elevations in the world for a member of Arecaceae: 3,500 m in Ecuador (F. Borchsenius & M. Moraes R., Botánica Económica de los Andes Centrales, 2006). Chusquea aristata Munro (Poaceae) from Colombia to Peru has the distinction of growing at altitudes up to 4,300 m in Ecuador, the highest known elevation for any bamboo (Judziewicz and Clark, Aliso, 2007). 

 

12. cauliflory is an unusual phenomenon among flowering plants that evolved multiple times during the history of angiosperms, mainly tropical, like South American non Brazilian Grias in Lecythidaceae, Latua in Solanaceae, and Crescentieae in Bignoniaceae. 

 

13. Puya raimondii Harms (Bromeliaceae) from mountains of Peru and Bolivia is the most massive inflorescence of the Earth, with 8-12m tall, and have a diameter of up to 2.4 metres; extra-large specimens can grow as tall as 15m; the inflorescence can bear approximately 8,000 small white flowers (Guinness World Records). Croton amentiformis Riina (Euphorbiaceae) from Ecuador and N Peru is unique in its great genus with pendulous and quite dense inflorescences (R. Riina et al., Webbia, 2015); simple umbrellas in South American genera absent in Brazil belong only to Oreomyrrhis Endl. Monocostus K. Schum. (Costaceae) endemic to rainforests of E Peru is the only axillary uniflorous species in his family (Neotropical Costaceae). 

 

14. the third species-to-species largest flower in the New World is possibly Victoria boliviana Magdalena & L.T.Sm (Nymphaeaceae), endemic to flood plains of the Llanos de Moxos, Mamoré watershed, E Bolivia, with a diameter of up to 36cm. Psittacanthus longiflorus Kuijt (Loranthaceae), known only from Amazonas in Peru has unusually long flowers (to 17 cm), the longest known for this genus (Kuijt, Novon, 2014). Passiflora antioquiensis H.Karts (Passifloraceae), endemic to Colombia, is possibly the largest flower of this family (observation of SDa, see images). 

 

15. by Almeda & Dorr (PCAS, 2006), 37 spp. of Melastomataceae are dioecious, all in Miconia Ruiz & Pav., mainly from northern Andes, 25 from Ecuador to Bolivia, 3 of them up to Colombia, 3 endemics to Venezuela, 5 from Mexico and Central America and 3 in Caribbean, one up South America, another up Central America - none in Brazil. 

 

16. Rhytidanthera (Planch.) Tieghem from Colombia and Venezuela is the only genus of Ochnaceae with compound leaves (Reinales & Parra-O, BJLS, 2020). Despite being impressive for its large leaves, Pentagonia Benth. stands out for being the genus of the only species of Rubiaceae with normal, mature leaves are pinnately lobed to deeply pinnatifid. In the New World, occasional individuals of some species of Simira Aubl. may have pinnatifid leaves and a few species of Cruckshanksia Hook. & Arn. have leaves deeply and digitately 2 or 3 lobed (Hammel, Phytoneuron, 2015). 

 

17. the typical venation of Melastomataceae is absent in remarkable latifolious genus absent in Brazil: Alloneuron Pilg., exclusive from Colombia and (mainly in) Peru, with more specifically semicraspedodromous or mixed craspedodromous (Michelangely et al., Int. J. Plant Sciences, 2011). 

 

18. at pollination, Rhynchotheca Ruiz & Pavon (Francoaceae) from Ecuador and N Peru may be the only anemophilous species of Geraniales (POWO | NTK). 

 

19. the presence of both monads and tetrads in the same genus is very rare; for instance, this feature occur, e.g., in extra-South American Typha L. (Typhaceae), Epilobium L. (Onagraceae) and Podophyllum L. (Berberidaceae), and in South American Xanthossoma (Araceae), where all species have pollen in tetrads except three spp. from Venezuela to Peru (X. paradoxum (Bogner & Mayo) Bogner, X. mariae Bogner & E. G. Gonç. and X. latestigmatum Bogner & E. G. Gonç.), who have pollen in monads. 

 

20. among odd fruits, of the 2,223 Myrtaceae of New World, only Metrosideros stipularis (Hook. & Arn.) Hook.f. from S Chile and Argentina has capsular fruits - and is also the only non-Myrteae (is a Metrosidereae) in the hemisphere (Lucas et al., Taxon, 2007; Pillon et al., Systematic Botany, 2015). Dactylocardamum Al-Shehbaz, endemic to mountains of Peru, is the unique in Brassicaceae in fruits axillary sandwiched imbricated leaves (Al-Shehbaz, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1989). 

 

21. an immense diversity of plants in South America are highly toxic, and any detailing is beyond the scope of this text. However, one remarkable monotypic genera can be cited: Sarcotoxicum salicifolium (Griseb) X. Cornejo & H. H. Iltis (Capparaceae), from Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia, whose fruits are edible at maturity if properly cooked, but extremely poisonous when immature, or even dried (Cornejo, Harvard Pappers in Botany, 2009). 

 

22. Calceolaria L. (Calceolariaceae) from tropical America is among the largest oil-producing genera - nonvolatile, a very unusual floral reward that attracts particular solitary oil-collecting bees (Cosakov et al., American Journal of Botany, 2009). 

 

23. at longevity, the List of Superlative Trees: Oldest proposes the ten oldest trees, and the second on the list is a gymnosperm from Argentina and Chile (Fitzroya cupressoides Hook. f. ex Lindl., Cupressaceae), in a Chilean individual.

24. Grias L. (Lecythidaceae) possibly has the largest leaves of Ericales; all species have leaves more tham 1m long (NYGB), but only two have bigger leaves: G. angustipetala Cornejo & S.A. Mori (Ecuador) and G. purpuripetala S.A. Mori & J. D. García-Gonz. (Colombia). Bajo Calima (region of W Colombia) species with putatively the largest leaves known in the entire world for their families include Schlegelia dressleri A. Gentry (Schlegeliaceae), Psittacanthus gigas Kuijt (Loranthaceae, leaves 50-100 cm long), Moquilea gentryi Prance (Chrysobalanaceae), Guarea cartaguenya Cuatrec (Meliaceae), Iryanthera megistophylla A. C. Smith (Myristicaceae), Ilex sp. nov. (leaves 15-25 x ca. 10 cm, Aquifoliaceae), and possibly Protium amplum Cuatr. (Burseraceae) and Macrolobium archeri Cowan (Fabaceae, also in Ecuador) - Gentry (Caldasia, 1986); some of them species reaches also in Panamá and Ecuador. Chusquea spectabilis L.G.Clark (Poaceae) from Venezuela to Ecuador has leaf blades which can reach 3–4 m in length, the largest leaves known in the grass family (Judziewicz and Clark, Aliso, 2007). 

 

25. spurred (with nectar spur in flower) genera in South America absents in Brazil includes Halenia (Gentianaceae), Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae, only E. tithymaloides L.), Pinguicula (Lentibulariaceae) and Nuttalanthus (Plantaginaceae), by SAa (SEE). 

 

26. spiralate anther in a very rare features, cited by few groups; in South America but non in Brazil this feature occur in Centaurium J.Hill. (Gentianaceae), by Krapov. (Bonplandia, 2009). 

 

27. the only neotropical dimerous Lauraceae is Yasunia van der Werff (Lauraceae), from Ecuador and Peru (van der Werff & Nishida, Novon, 2010); Tacarcuna amanoifolia Huft. from Colombia and Peru has 14–19 stamens, among the highest number in Phyllanthaceae (Hoffman et al., Kew Bulletin, 2006). 

28. Only two several parasitic plants infect cactis, both Loranthaceae subtribe Ligariinae: Tristerix aphyllus (Miers ex DC.) Barlow & Wiens attacking Trichocereeus chiloensis (Colla) Britton & Rose in Chile, and Ligaria cuneifolia (Ruiz & Pav.) Tiegh. on Corryocactus Britton & Rose in Peru (Mauseth et al., Cactus and Succulent Journal, 2006). Tristerix aphyllus also has the most derived parasite in Santalales, as a endophytic parasite on cacti, whose endophytic life history may allow the parasite to escape the hot and desiccating desert conditions; however, this species retain some chlorophyll, and in spite of these extreme advances toward parasitism, true holoparasites are absent in the order despites Balanophoraceae (Science Direct | Holoparasitic). 

29. several members of Amaryllidaceae-Alloideae from Chile, Bolivia and Argentina (Gilliesia Lindl. and Miersia Lindl.) has zygomorphic flowers, superficially some Orchidaceae, uncommon or absent in remaining family in continent (Rudall et al., Am. J. Bot., 2002). 

30. some South American plants have some extremely unique appearance peculiarities. Outside Brazil, one of the most notable is Telipogon diabolicus Kolan., Szlach. & Medina (Orchidaceae), endemic to the border between the departments of Putumayo and Nariño in S Colombia, due to its floral appearance that resembles the popular silhouette of a devil.

31. Bignonia magnifica W.Bull (Bignoniaceae, Panama to N Venezuela and Ecuador) is the longest Lamiid plastome described to date (Fonseca et al., PeerJ, 2022).

ANGIOSPERMS OF BRAZIL: A HABIT-BASED SYNOPSIS

Brazil have around 33,379 spp. of described angiosperms, with over 18,000 endemics, showcasing an exceptional diversity of adaptation forms in soil, freshwater, coastal environments, and upon other plants. Here, we propose to classify the country's plant diversity into 50 categories of vegetative forms, based on extensive bibliographic research.

The vast majority of Brazil's angiosperm diversity fits into ordinary terrestrial forms of (1)tree, shrub, epiphytes, lianas, and herbs. Trees range from measly 2m to 88m meters (Dinizia excelsa), exhibiting various patterns of branch architecture, leaves, barks, flowers (many cauliflorous, some flagelliflorous), and fruits; their leaves span from afilous species to Coccobola gigantifolia, with simple leaves reaching up to 3m in width. Similar patterns are observed with shrubs and herbs. Lianas, in turn, can be flexible, like in Cucurbitaceae and Convolvulaceae, and woody, like some Fabaceae. This category also includes a significant portion of terrestrial hemiparasites, as in Krameriaceae, Orobanchaceae, and Santalales.

Some variants of shrubs stand out: the (2)branching xilopodics, with underground organs, notable examples in Brazil like Anacardium, Jacaranda, and Stryphnodendron; (3)non-branching xilopodics, like Sinningia helioana, where leaves grow directly from the bulb; (4)caudiciforms, deriving from herbs but creating a woody base, like some Bulbostylis and many Cryptanthoids; (5)hyper-thorny, sometimes leafy, with extreme forms like Quiabentia, Colletia, and Discaria in Rhamnaceae; (6)cushions, sparsely represented in Brazil, with notable examples in Paepalanthus; (7)non-Cactaceae succulents, in Brazil represented by Portulaca and Euphorbia; (8)spiny succulents, like Diosocorea basiclavicaulis; (9)ephedroid, sparsely represented in Brazil but identified in Polygonum, Orthosia, and some Spigelia; (10)dracenoid, with notable examples in Brazil being Vellozia and Cordyline; (11)ground rosettes, spiny or not, well represented in Brazil by many Bromeliaceae, Furcraea, Orectanthe, and Eryngium; (12)caulirosules, with the most notable example in Brazil being Prestelia and some Microlicia; and (13)phyllocladoids, like some Phyllanthus and Brasiliopuntia.

The most notable tree variants are the forms (14)cecropioids, well represented by Cecropia, and (15)mangrove species, which migrated to the partially saline environment on the coast, with representatives of Rhizophora, Conocarpus, Laguncularia, and Halairanthus in Brazil.

Some plants, between shrub and tree size, have assumed a non-cactus (16)candelabriform non-cacti aspect, with leaves at the extreme branches, as seen in some Merianthera, Jatropha, some Caricaceae, Hyptis, Wunderlichia and Mimosa.

Among herbs, they can be as tiny as Lepuropetalum at 2cm in diameter to giants like Phenakospermum. Some creep in environments forming carpets, the (17)carpet-forming, like Raddiella, Micranthemum, Callisia, Elatine, and some Euphorbia and Pilea. Others, in pre-marine environments, have assumed the (18)salicornioid habit, like Sarcocornia and Batis. Still near the sea, some have taken the (19)sesuvioid habit, like Sesuvium, Ammania, Rotala, Laurembergia, and some Gomphrena. Two other interesting categories of herbs are the (20)graminids, typical of Monocots like Tofieldiaceae, Juncaginaceae, Velloziaceae, Cyclanthaceae, Nartherciaceae, Typhaceae, Rapateaceae, Thurniaceae, Juncaceae, Cyperaceae, Poaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Xyridaceae, Commelinaceae, and Haemodoraceae; the (21)juncoid aphyllous, as seen in Glaziophyton mirabile; and the (22)bulb-bearing, like Amaryllidaceae, Asparagaceae, Orchidaceae, Iridaceae, and at least a single Pitcairnia.

(23)Giant herbs may include members of Araceae, Taccaceae, Orchidaceae, Worsleya, Eriocaulaceae, Heliconiaceae, Strelitziaceae, Maranthaceae, Cannaceae, Zingiberaceae, Costaceae, Gunneraceae, Alstroemeriaceae, and Caricaceae; whereas (24)sacciform-leaved herbs only include Saccifolium bandeirae from Monte Neblina.

Among epiphytes/lianescent, four myriad forms stand out: (24)aerial parasites, strongly represented in Loranthaceae and Santalaceae; (25)hoyoids, growing adherent to the substrate, where in Brazil some Peperomia, Constantia, Monstera, Acianthera, Marcgravia, and Codonanthe can be mentioned; (26)pendulous, like some Rhipsalidae, Dichaea and Isochilus; (27)electric-grid epiphytes, like Tillandsia recurvata; (28)negatively growing lithophytes, like Tillandsia reclinata; (29)cacti-epiphyllous, like Hatiora and many Rhipsalis; (30)strangulating, like some Ficus and Spirotheca; and (31)tank epiphytes, like many Bromeliaceae.

Some notable types include plants that encompass more than one major group, like the (32)bambusoids, which include herbaceous forms (in Orchidaceae and Amaranthaceae) and woody forms (like true bamboos), the (33)palmoids, including shrub-like forms like Cyclanthaceae and many Arecaceae, and tree-like forms, like most Arecaceae; and the (34)odd leaf forms forms, as ericoid, microphyllous, quandrangular or worled leaves at the stem, widely present in Brazilian savannas, found in members of Myrcia, Spermacoceae, Mandevilla, Sauvagesia, Ruehssia, Minaria, Hyptis, Lychnophorinae, Baccharis, Agrianthus, Catolesia, Hypericum, Heteropterys, Turnera, Cliococca, Moninna, Senega, Chamaecrista, Cuphea, Cambessedesia, Microlicia, Marcetia, Microtea, Caryophyllaceae, Xerosiphon, Froelichiella, Ledothamnus, Declieuxia, Deianira, Calolisianthus, and Barjonia.

All the above plants are essentially terrestrial and amphibious. Many forms are aquatic, notably the (35)floating, like Nympheaceae, Lemnoideae, Pistia, Alismataceae, Phyllanthus fluitans, Ludwigia sedoides, and Nymphoides; the (36)submerged/aerial, like Cabombaceae, freshwater Hydrocharitaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Mayacaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Pontederiaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, Ranunculus, Myriophyllum, Podostemaceae, Callitriche, Anamaria and Lilaeopsis; and the (37)sea grasses, in Hydrocharithaceae, Ruppiaceae, and Cymodoceaceae.

Cactaceae, with the exception of Pereskioideae, some forms in Opuntioideae, and epiphytic cacti, stand as separate types: (38)opuntioid, like Tacinga; (39)microglobular, like Frailea; (40)common cactoid, thin or thick, like Cereus and Facheroa; (41)macroglobular, like some Parodia, Melocactus, and Uebelmania; (42)branching, with very thin branches, like Harrisia and Arrojadoa; and (43)diffuse, like some forms of Gymnocalycium.

Four carnivorous forms deserve mention as well: the (44)pitchers, like Heliamphora; the (45)droseroids, like Drosera; the (45)round subterranean-leaves, as in Philcoxia; and the (47)Lentibulariaceae, in the case of Utricularia and Genlisea.

All the above plants are photosynthetic. There are three types of non-photosynthetic: the (48)achlorophyllous terrestrials, like Prosopanche, many Burmaniaceae, Thismiaceae, Triuridaceae, Orchidaceae, Balanophoraceae, Voyria and Voyriella; the (49)aerial lianas, like Cassytha and Cuscuta; and the (50)isophasics, like Apodanthaceae.

O QUE O BRASIL PRECISA?

Não de muito: um período geológico e um elemento químico batizados em referência ao nosso país, armas nucleares e bases militares no exterior.

PERIODO GEOLÓGICO

Nenhum período geológico, até nível de series, tem nome dado em referência a Brasil ou um elemento seu.

Os nomes das eras geológicas têm origens variadas, muitas vezes derivadas de características geológicas significativas ou de locais onde foram inicialmente identificadas. Todos são nomes de radicais gregos exceto Pré-Cambriano, pois Cambria era um nome antigo para atual Gales. Dos 12 períodos dentro das eras, todos se baseiam em nomes de objetos ou termos genéricos, exceto os citados a seguir.

Cambriano: Este período foi nomeado após Cambria, o nome latino para Gales.

Ordoviciano: O nome vem da tribo Ordovices, uma tribo celta que habitava a região de Gales.

Siluriano: Nomeado após os Silures, uma antiga tribo celta que habitava a região central do País de Gales.

Devoniano: Derivado da região de Devonshire, na Inglaterra.

Permiano: Nomeado após a província de Perm, na Rússia.

Jurássico: Nomeado após a região de Jura, nos Alpes franceses.

No estágio inferior - séries - há varias referências a regiões de vários países do mundo, com destaque para EUA (3), China (3), Rússia (1), entre outros. Não há referência a nenhum país da América Latina nem África. Para listagem completa destes períodos, veja Wikipedia/Geologic Time Scale.

QUADRO DOS PRINCIPAIS PERÍODOS GEOLÓCIGAS ATÉ NÍVEL DE ERA

ELEMENTO QUIMICO

Os nomes dos elementos químicos podem ser atribuídos de várias maneiras, mas geralmente seguem certas convenções e padrões estabelecidos pela União Internacional de Química Pura e Aplicada (IUPAC) e pela comunidade científica internacional. Aqui está uma lista dos elementos químicos batizados em referência a entes geográficos (Superinteressante, 2023) - nenhum faz referência ao Brasil.

Magnesio (Magnesia, Grécia)

Escândio (Escandinávia, Europe)

Manganês (também Magnesia, Grécia)

Cobre (Chipre)

Gálio (Gália, França)

Germânio (Alemanha)

Estrôncio (Vila de Strontian, na Escócia)

Ítrio (Cidade de Ytterby, na Suécia)

Rutênio (Ruthenia, antigo nome das terras da Rússia)

Samário (deriva do mineral samarskita, batizado em homenagem ao geólogo russo Vassili Samarsky-Bykhovets)

Európio (Europa)

Gadolínio (de gadolinita, batizado em homenagem ao cientista nórdico Johan Gadolin)

Térbio (Ytterby, na Suécia)

Holmio (Holmia, antigo nome da cidade de Estocolmo)

Érbio (Ytterby, na Suécia)

Túlio (Thule, antigo termo usado para se referir à Escandinávia)

Itérbio (Ytterby, na Suécia)

Lutécio (Lutetia, antigo nome romano da cidade de Paris)

Háfnio (Háfnia, o antigo nome da cidade de Copenhague)

Rênio (Rio Reno, que cruza a Alemanha)

Polônio (Polônia, terra natal de Marie Curie)

Frâncio (França)

Amerício (America)

Cúrio (Marie Curie (1867 – 1934) e Pierre Curie (1859 – 1906), químicos poloneses)

Berquélio (Berkeley, EUA)

Californio (Califórnia, EUA)

Einstênio (Albert Einstein, físico alemão)

Férmio (Enrico Fermi, físico italiano)

Mendelévio (Dmitri Mendeleev, físico russo)

Nobélio (Alfred Nobel, químico e engenheiro sueco)

Laurêncio (Ernest Lawrence, físico estadunidense)

Ruthefordio (Ernest Rutherford, físico neozelandes)

Dubnio (Dubna, Rússia)

Seabórgio (Glenn Theodore Seaborg, químico estadunidense)

Bohrio (Niels Bohr, físico dinamarquês)

Hássio (Hasse, na Alemanha)

Meitnério (Lise Meitner, física austríaca)

Damstádio (Darmstadt, na Alemanha)

Roentgenio (Wilhelm Röntgen, físico alemão)

Copernício (Nicolau Copérnico, estudioso polonês)

Nihonio (Japão)

Fleróvio (Georgy Flyorov, físico soviético/russo)

Moscóvio (Moscou, Rússia)

Livermório (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, laboratório da Califórnia)

Tenessino (Tennessee, EUA)

Oganessônio (Yuri Oganessian, físico soviético/russo)

De todos estes registros, os únicos que não fezem refewrência a países inteiramente europeus ou pesquisadores seus são 17: Cobre, Rutênio, Samário, Amerício, Berquélio, Califórnio, Mendelévio, Laurêncio, Rutherfordio, Dubnio, Seabórgio, Nihonio, Fleróvio, Moscóvio, Livermório, Tenessino e Oganessônio - destes, seis são referência aos EUA (2 estados, 1 cidade, 1 instituto, 2 pesquisadores), sete em referência a Rússia (1 nome genérico, 4 pesquisadores e 2 cidades), e Chipre, Nova Zealândia, Japão e América como um todo, uma referência cada.

ARMA NUCLEAR

Países com armas nucleares detêm um poder estratégico significativo no cenário global. Ter um arsenal nuclear confere a esses países uma posição de influência e dissuasão, principalmente em termos de segurança nacional e geopolítica. Aqui estão algumas razões para a importância das armas nucleares para um país:

1. Dissuasão de Agressão: As armas nucleares servem como um poderoso elemento dissuasório contra agressores potenciais. A ameaça de retaliação nuclear pode desencorajar outros países de lançar ataques contra um país nuclear.

2. Segurança Nacional: O arsenal nuclear fortalece a segurança nacional de um país, garantindo sua capacidade de resposta a qualquer ameaça existencial. Isso cria uma espécie de "guarda-chuva nuclear" para proteger o país contra ameaças externas.

3. Influência Global: Possuir armas nucleares confere prestígio e influência no cenário global. Isso pode ser utilizado como moeda de troca em negociações diplomáticas e como uma forma de afirmação de poder.

4. Equilíbrio de Poder: A posse de armas nucleares por vários países contribui para um equilíbrio de poder, desencorajando conflitos diretos entre grandes potências e promovendo a estabilidade global.

Atualmente, os principais países com arsenais nucleares são: Rússia (5889), Estados Unidos (5224), China (410), França (290), Reino Unido (225), Paquistão (170), Índia (164), Israel (unknown) e Coreia do Norte (embora não oficialmente reconhecida por todos os países).

PAÍSES QUE TEM ARMAS NUCLEARES, E PAÍSES QUE AS ABRIGAM EM SEU TERRITÓRIO (EM INGLÊS)

BASE MILITAR ESTRANGEIRA

A instalação de bases militares no exterior permite a um país projetar poder, por exemplo, para conduzir guerra expedicionária e, assim, influenciar eventos no exterior. Dependendo de seu tamanho e infraestrutura, elas podem ser usadas como áreas de preparação ou para suporte logístico, de comunicações e de inteligência. Muitos conflitos ao longo da história moderna resultaram na instalação de bases militares no exterior em grande número por parte das potências mundiais; e essas bases têm ajudado os países que as estabeleceram a alcançar objetivos políticos e militares.

Ao todo no mundo, 18 países projetam poder com presenças militares articuladas fora de seu território (Wikipedia). Todos os países que tem bases fora do seu território são da Eurásia exceto EUA e Austrália. Por outro lado, nas Américas, apenas os EUA posseum base fora do país, e os únicos que tem bases em seu território são Cuba (China e EUA um cada), Bahamas (EUA), Belize (Reino Unido), Honduras (EUA) e Antilhas Holandesas (EUA e Neterlands 1 cada).

TODAS AS RELAÇÕES ENTRE PAÍSES COM BASES EM OUTRO PAÍS, COM EXCEÇÃO DAS RELAÇÕES DAS BASES DOS EUA NA EUROPA E ORIENTE MÉDIO